where $r$ is the number of rows and $c$ is the number of columns in the contingency table.
4. P值和情境化结论★★★☆☆⏱ 3 min
The final step of the test is calculating the p-value and writing a valid conclusion in context. Because any deviation from expected counts increases the $\chi^2$ test statistic, all chi-square tests for independence are right-tailed. The p-value is the probability of observing a $\chi^2$ statistic as large or larger than the one you calculated, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
Compare your p-value to the significance level $\alpha$ (almost always 0.05, unless stated otherwise):
If $p < \alpha$: Reject $H_0$, there is sufficient evidence of an association.
If $p \geq \alpha$: Fail to reject $H_0$, there is not sufficient evidence of an association.
5. 概念检测★★★☆☆⏱ 4 min
Common Pitfalls
Why: 推断是将样本结果推广到更大的总体;你已经知道样本中的计数了
Why: 学生将卡方独立性检验的自由度公式与t检验或卡方拟合优度检验的公式混淆
Why: 学生只关注卡方检验特有的大计数条件,遗漏了所有无放回抽样推断都需要的通用10%条件
Why: Students generalize that all hypothesis tests can be two-tailed, forgetting the structure of the chi-square test statistic