# Ethical issues

> CIE A-Level Computer Science · 9618
> Source: https://www.owlsprep.com/study/cie-9618-u7-ethical-issues/

This sub-topic introduces core ethical concepts in computing, covers common ethical issues from widespread digital technology use, and teaches you how to analyse ethical impacts for stakeholders in exam-style scenarios.

**Prerequisites:** Basic understanding of digital systems and data processing

## Learning objectives

- Distinguish ethical issues from social, legal and professional issues
- Identify common ethical issues arising from computing technology
- Analyse ethical impacts from the perspective of different stakeholders
- Apply core ethical frameworks to evaluate computing scenarios

## Core Definitions: Ethics vs Related Issues

**Ethical issue** — A situation where a choice of action creates a conflict between conflicting moral principles, separate from purely legal or professional rules

*Example:* Sharing a user's personal data without consent, even if the action is not illegal

CIE exams regularly ask you to distinguish between four overlapping categories of issues that are often confused:

- *Ethical*: Based on moral right and wrong, regardless of legislation
- *Social*: Broad impacts on groups or society as a whole (e.g. digital divide)
- *Legal*: Actions that conflict with existing laws or regulations
- *Professional*: Actions that breach industry codes of conduct for practitioners

**Worked example:** A software company sells anonymised user health data to a pharmaceutical company. The sale is not illegal in the company's home country. What is the primary category of issue this raises?

1. First, eliminate legal: the question confirms the sale is not illegal, so it is not a primarily legal issue.
2. Next, eliminate other categories: while it breaches professional conduct and has social impacts, the core conflict is moral.
3. The action violates the user's moral right to control their personal data, so this is primarily an ethical issue.

> **Exam tip:** Always answer the category the question asks for: do not write about legal issues if the question specifically requests ethical issues only.

## Common Ethical Issues in Computing

There are several recurring ethical issues that are frequently tested in 9618 exams. You should be able to identify and describe these for any given scenario:

- **Privacy and data protection**: Unauthorised access or sharing of personal information
- **Mass surveillance**: Constant monitoring of individuals by governments or private organisations
- **AI and algorithmic bias**: Systematic unfairness against protected groups in automated systems
- Digital divide: Unequal access to digital technology across income or regional groups
- **Environmental harm**: Carbon emissions from data centres and toxic e-waste from obsolete devices
- **Misinformation**: Algorithms that promote harmful or false content to boost engagement

**Worked example:** A city government installs 500 new facial recognition CCTV cameras in all public spaces. Identify two ethical issues raised by this change.

1. First, privacy: constant facial recognition enables permanent tracking of all members of the public, violating their right to move without being monitored.
2. Second, algorithmic bias: most facial recognition systems are significantly less accurate for people with darker skin tones, leading to unfair targeting and wrongful arrest of ethnic minorities.
3. Other valid answers include lack of public consent or potential misuse of data by government agencies.

> **Exam tip:** Always link your ethical issue to the specific scenario given in the question to earn full marks.

## Stakeholder Analysis for Ethical Conflicts

**Stakeholder** — Any person, group or organisation that is directly or indirectly affected by the development or use of a computing system

*Example:* End users, developers, company owners, governments, the general public, future generations

Most ethical conflicts arise because different stakeholders have competing priorities and interests. A key exam skill is to identify these conflicting perspectives to show evaluation.

**Worked example:** A social media platform changes its algorithm to prioritise engaging content over accurate content. Identify conflicting ethical perspectives for the platform and for teenage users.

1. Perspective 1 (Platform): The platform will argue the algorithm increases user engagement, grows revenue and improves user experience, making the change ethically acceptable.
2. Perspective 2 (Teenage users): Users and privacy advocates argue the algorithm promotes harmful misinformation (e.g. about eating disorders) and increases addictive screen time, harming vulnerable young people, making it unethical.
3. Full marks require noting that the conflict comes from differing core priorities: profit for the platform vs well-being for users.

## Ethical Frameworks for Evaluation

Exams may ask you to judge whether an action is ethical using one of two core ethical frameworks that you need to know for 9618:

- **Utilitarianism**: An action is ethical if it creates the greatest good for the greatest number of stakeholders, judged by its outcomes
- **Deontology**: An action is inherently right or wrong regardless of outcomes, based on fixed moral rules

**Worked example:** A hospital shares confidential medical data of 100 patients with researchers to develop a cure for a deadly disease that affects 10,000 people. Is this action ethical under utilitarianism?

1. Recall that utilitarianism judges actions by the total outcome for all stakeholders, not inherent moral rules.
2. Compare harms and benefits: 100 patients experience a privacy violation (limited harm), while 10,000 people gain the potential benefit of a life-saving cure (great good).
3. The action creates the greatest good for the greatest number of people, so it is considered ethical under utilitarianism.

> **Exam tip:** If a question asks you to use a specific framework, explicitly name the framework and follow its logic to access full marks.

## Common pitfalls

- **Wrong:** Confusing ethical issues with legal issues
  - Why it fails: Many students assume all ethical issues are illegal and vice versa, but actions can be legal but unethical, or illegal but ethical.
  - Correct: Always answer the category the question asks for, and remember ethics is about morality, not just compliance with law.
- **Wrong:** Only presenting one side of an ethical conflict
  - Why it fails: Extended response questions require evaluation, so one-sided answers get limited marks.
  - Correct: Always consider conflicting perspectives from different stakeholders to demonstrate balanced evaluation.
- **Wrong:** Writing general statements not linked to the scenario
  - Why it fails: Examiners award marks for applying concepts to the given case, not for recalling generic definitions.
  - Correct: Always explicitly connect your ethical issue to specific details from the question's scenario.
- **Wrong:** Forgetting less obvious stakeholders
  - Why it fails: Most students only mention end users and companies, ignoring other affected groups.
  - Correct: Always consider wider stakeholders like the general public, minority groups, or future generations when analysing impacts.
- **Wrong:** Mixing up utilitarian and deontological frameworks
  - Why it fails: Students often reverse the core logic of the two frameworks in exam answers.
  - Correct: Remember: Utilitarian = outcomes (greatest good for most), Deontology = rules (action is inherently right/wrong).

## Cheatsheet

| Category/Framework | Core Definition |
| --- | --- |
| Ethical Issue | Conflict of moral principles |
| Social Issue | Impact on society/groups |
| Legal Issue | Conflict with existing law |
| Professional Issue | Breach of industry code of conduct |
| Utilitarianism | Judges by outcome: greatest good for greatest number |
| Deontology | Judges by rules: action inherently right/wrong |

## What's next

Understanding ethical issues is the foundation for all other topics in this unit on ethics and ownership. You will build on this core knowledge to explore specific legal frameworks for data protection, intellectual property rights, and the professional responsibilities of computing workers. Ethical analysis is a recurring theme in both Paper 1 and Paper 2 of CIE 9618, with extended response questions frequently requiring you to apply your understanding to novel scenarios. Practising stakeholder analysis and ethical evaluation will help you access higher mark bands, as examiners reward clear, balanced arguments that link concepts to specific context.

- [Data Protection Legislation](https://www.owlsprep.com/study/cie-9618-u7-data-protection-legislation/)
- [Intellectual property and ownership](https://www.owlsprep.com/study/cie-9618-u7-intellectual-property-and-ownership/)
- [Digital divide](https://www.owlsprep.com/study/cie-9618-u7-digital-divide/)

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